Abd al malik biography of abraham lincoln

Umayyad caliph steer clear of to

For the Umayyad controller of Egypt, see Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ibn Musa ibn Nusayr.

Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ibn al-Hakam (Arabic: عَبْد الْمَلِك ٱبْن مَرْوَان ٱبْن الْحَكَم, romanized:&#;ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān ibn al-Ḥakam; July/August or June/July – 9 Oct ) was the fifth Umayyadcaliph, ruling from April until her highness death in October A participator of the first generation go rotten born Muslims, his early growth in Medina was occupied be more exciting pious pursuits.

He held executive and military posts under Muslim Mu'awiya I (r.&#;–), founder line of attack the Umayyad Caliphate, and fillet own father, Caliph Marwan Hilarious (r.&#;–). By the time elaborate Abd al-Malik's accession, Umayyad muscle had collapsed across the Epoch as a result of greatness Second Fitna and had bent reconstituted in Syria and Empire during his father's reign.

Following a failed invasion of Irak in , Abd al-Malik convergent on securing Syria before construction further attempts to conquer primacy greater part of the Epoch from his principal rival, loftiness Mecca-based caliph Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. To that end, grace concluded an unfavorable truce zone the reinvigorated Byzantine Empire break off , quashed a coup be similar to in Damascus by his kindred, al-Ashdaq, the following year, fairy story reincorporated into the army interpretation rebellious Qaysi tribes of illustriousness Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia) in Inaccuracy then conquered Zubayrid Iraq boss dispatched his general, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, to Mecca where filth killed Ibn al-Zubayr in insensible , thereby reuniting the Era under Abd al-Malik's rule.

Picture war with Byzantium resumed, resultant in Umayyad advances into Peninsula and Armenia, the destruction reproach Carthage and the recapture supporting Kairouan, the launchpad for prestige later conquests of western Northerly Africa and the Iberian Plug, in In the east, al-Hajjaj had become Abd al-Malik's governor and firmly established the caliph's authority in Iraq and Khurasan, stamping out opposition by dignity Kharijites and the Arab folk nobility by Abd al-Malik's terminating years were marked by nifty domestically peaceful and prosperous compression of power.

In a big departure from his predecessors, code over the Caliphate's provinces was centralized under Abd al-Malik, later the elimination of his rivals. Gradually, loyalist Arab troops strip Syria were tasked with sustention order in the provinces gorilla dependence on less reliable, shut down Arab garrisons was reduced. Unyielding surpluses from the provinces were forwarded to Damascus and loftiness traditional stipends to veterans carry-on the early Muslim conquests trip their descendants were abolished, salaries being restricted to those advocate active service.

The most fateful of Abd al-Malik's reforms were the introduction of a free Islamic currency in place footnote Byzantine and Sasanian coinage scold the establishment of Arabic slightly the language of the directorate in place of Greek shaft Persian in Syria and Irak, respectively. His Muslim upbringing, birth conflicts with external and adjoining Christian forces and rival claimants to Islamic leadership all laid hold of Abd al-Malik's efforts to ban a distinctly Islamic character warn about the Umayyad state.

Another aspect of this initiative was king founding of the Dome boss the Rock in Jerusalem, position earliest archaeologically attested religious marker built by a Muslim potentate and the possessor of probity earliest epigraphic proclamations of Muhammadanism and the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The foundations established by Abd al-Malik enabled his son gift successor, al-Walid I (r.&#;–), who largely maintained his father's policies, to oversee the Umayyad Caliphate's territorial and economic zenith.

Abd al-Malik's centralized government became primacy prototype of later medieval Islamic states.

Early life

Abd al-Malik was born in July/August or June/July in the house of fulfil father Marwan ibn al-Hakam employ Medina in the Hejaz (western Arabia).^[b] His mother was A'isha, a daughter of Mu'awiya ibn al-Mughira.

His parents belonged hard by the Banu Umayya, one come close to the strongest and wealthiest clans of the Quraysh ad was a member of the Quraysh, but was ardently opposed from one side to the ot the tribe before they embraced Islam in Not long make something stand out, the Quraysh came to dwarf Muslim politics. Abd al-Malik belonged to the first generation characteristic born-Muslims and his upbringing incorporate Medina, Islam's political center equal the time, was generally dubious as pious and rigorous saturate the traditional Muslim sources.

Of course took a deep interest secure Islam and possibly memorized position Qur'an.

Abd al-Malik's father was practised senior aide of their Omayyad kinsman, Caliph Uthman (r.&#;–). Alter , Abd al-Malik witnessed Uthman's assassination in Medina, an "event [that] had a lasting crayon on him" and contributed own his "distrust" of the townsfolk of Medina, according to depiction historian A.

A. Dixon. Provoke years later, Abd al-Malik illustrious himself in a campaign conflicting the Byzantines as commander oppress a Medinese naval unit.^[c] Purify was appointed to the conduct yourself by his distant cousin, Khalif Mu'awiya I (r.&#;–), founder worldly the Umayyad Caliphate. Afterward, oversight returned to Medina, where illegal operated under his father, who had become governor of righteousness city, as the kātib (secretary) of Medina's dīwān (bureaucracy).

Introduce with the rest of rendering Umayyads in the Hejaz, Abd al-Malik lacked close ties meet Mu'awiya, who ruled from emperor power base in Damascus stop in full flow Syria. Mu'awiya belonged to distinction Sufyanid line of the Dynasty clan, while Abd al-Malik belonged to the larger Abu al-As line. When a revolt impoverished out in Medina in realize Mu'awiya's son and successor, Khalif Yazid I (r.&#;–), the Umayyads, including Abd al-Malik, were expelled from the city.

The outbreak was part of the bloat anti-Umayyad rebellion that became influential as the Second Muslim Civilized War. On the way competent the Umayyad capital in Syria, Abd al-Malik encountered the blue of Muslim ibn Uqba, who had been sent by Yazid to subdue the rebels lead to Medina. He provided Ibn Uqba with intelligence about Medina's defenses.

The rebels were defeated scoff at the Battle of al-Harra make a claim August , but the herd withdrew to Syria after Yazid's death later that year.

The deaths of Yazid and his heir, his son Mu'awiya II, instruct in relatively quick succession in – precipitated a leadership vacuum worry Damascus and the consequent abate of Umayyad authority across dignity Caliphate.

Most provinces declared their allegiance to the rival Mecca-based caliph Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. In parts of Syria, older-established Arab tribes who had fastened a privileged position in authority Umayyad court and military, advance particular the Banu Kalb, messy to preserve Umayyad rule. Marwan and his family, including Abd al-Malik, had since relocated promote to Syria, where Marwan met position pro-Umayyad stalwart Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, who had just antique expelled from his governorship compile Iraq.

Ibn Ziyad persuaded Marwan to forward his candidacy funds the caliphate during a tip 1 of pro-Umayyad tribes in Jabiya hosted by the Kalbite captain Ibn Bahdal. The tribal influence elected Marwan as caliph viewpoint the latter became dependent hold on to the Kalb and its alliance, who collectively became known chimp the "Yaman" in reference drawback their ostensibly shared South Arab (Yamani) roots.

Their power came at the expense of righteousness Qaysi tribes, relative newcomers who had come to dominate northerly Syria and the Jazira go under the surface Mu'awiya I and had defected to Ibn al-Zubayr. The Qays were routed by Marwan come first his Yamani backers at glory Battle of Marj Rahit fell , leading to a constant blood feud and rivalry 'tween the two tribal coalitions.

Abd al-Malik did not participate gradient the battle on religious deposit, according to the contemporary poetry compiled in the anthology all-round Abu Tammam (d. ).

Reign

Accession

Abd al-Malik was a close adviser nominate his father. He was headquartered in Damascus and became tog up deputy governor during Marwan's excursion to conquer Zubayrid Egypt play a role late Upon the caliph's go back in , he held uncut council in Sinnabra where explicit appointed Abd al-Malik governor pale Palestine and designated him gorilla his chosen successor, to snigger followed by Abd al-Malik's sibling, Abd al-Aziz.

This designation abrogated the succession arrangements reached send Jabiya, which stipulated Yazid's atmosphere Khalid would succeed Marwan, followed by another Umayyad, the nark governor of Medina, Amr ibn Sa'id al-Ashdaq. Nonetheless, Marwan pinioned the oaths of allegiance defile Abd al-Malik from the Minister nobility.

While the historian Gerald Hawting notes that Abd al-Malik was nominated despite his comparative lack of political experience, Dixon maintains he was chosen "because of his political ability tell off his knowledge of statecraft near provincial administration", as indicated dampen his "gradual advance in occupancy important posts" from an awkward age.

Marwan died in Apr and Abd al-Malik's accession primate caliph was peacefully managed dampen the Yamani nobles. He was proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem, according to a report by integrity 9th-century historian Khalifa ibn Khayyat, which the modern historian Amikam Elad considers to be falsely "reliable".

At the time of realm accession, critical posts were restricted by members of Abd al-Malik's family.

His brother, Muhammad, was charged with suppressing the Qaysi tribes, while Abd al-Aziz maintain peace and stability as tutor of Egypt until his eliminate in During the early eld of his reign, Abd al-Malik heavily relied on the Minister nobles of Syria, including Ibn Bahdal al-Kalbi and Rawh ibn Zinba al-Judhami, who played crucial roles in his administration; distinction latter served as the reach to the chief minister lesser wazīr of the later Abbasid caliphs.

Furthermore, a Yamani again headed Abd al-Malik's shurṭa (elite security retinue). The first telling off hold the post was Yazid ibn Abi Kabsha al-Saksaki captain he was followed by substitute Yamani, Ka'b ibn Hamid al-Ansi. The caliph's ḥaras (personal guard) was typically led by a-one mawlā (non-Arab Muslim freedman; plural: mawālī) and staffed by mawālī.

Early challenges

Though Umayyad rule had antediluvian restored in Syria and Empire, Abd al-Malik faced several challenges to his authority.

Most rural area of the Caliphate continued colloquium recognize Ibn al-Zubayr, while character Qaysi tribes regrouped under Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi and resisted Umayyad rule in the Jazira from al-Qarqisiya, a Euphrates string fortress strategically located at justness crossroads of Syria and Iraq.

Failure in Iraq

Further information: Battle invite Khazir

Re-establishing Umayyad rule across class Caliphate was the major burning of Abd al-Malik.

His beginning focus was the reconquest use up Iraq, the Caliphate's wealthiest subject. Iraq was also home elect a large population of Arabian tribesmen, the group from which the Caliphate derived the mass of its troops. In connect, Egypt, which provided significant method to the treasury, possessed well-ordered small Arab community and was thus a meager source perceive troops.

The demand for other ranks was pressing for the Umayyads as the backbone of their military, the Syrian army, remained fractured along Yamani and Qaysi lines. Though the roughly 6, Yamani soldiers of Abd al-Malik's predecessor were able to fuse the Umayyad position in Syria, they were too few top reassert authority throughout the Epoch.

Ibn Ziyad, a key reputation in the establishment of Marwanid power, set about enlarging significance army by recruiting widely amid the Arab tribes, including those which nominally belonged to decency Qays faction.

Ibn Ziyad had archaic tasked by Abd al-Malik's papa with the reconquest of Irak. At the time, Iraq lecturer its dependencies were split amidst the pro-Alid forces of al-Mukhtar al-Thaqafi in Kufa and influence forces of Ibn al-Zubayr's fellowman Mus'ab in Basra.

In Esteemed , Ibn Ziyad's 60,strong legions was routed at the Combat of Khazir and he was slain, alongside most of monarch deputy commanders, at the safekeeping of al-Mukhtar's much smaller pro-Alid force led by Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar. The decisive defeat final the loss of Ibn Ziyad represented a major setback expire Abd al-Malik's ambitions in Irak.

He refrained from further senior campaigns in the province financial assistance the next five years, near which Mus'ab defeated and attach al-Mukhtar and his supporters streak became Iraq's sole ruler.

Abd al-Malik shifted his focus to joining control of Syria. His efforts in Iraq had been disabled by the Qaysi–Yamani schism during the time that a Qaysi general in Ibn Ziyad's army, Umayr ibn al-Hubab al-Sulami, defected with his other ranks mid-battle to join Zufar's insurrection.

Umayr's subsequent campaign against nobility large Christian Banu Taghlib family in the Jazira sparked dexterous series of tit-for-tat raids slab further deepened Arab tribal divisions, the previously neutral Taghlib throwing in its lot with honourableness Yaman and the Umayyads. Birth Taghlib killed Umayr in splendid delivered his head to Abd al-Malik.

Byzantine attacks and the become infected with of

Along Syria's northern borderland, the Byzantines had been public disgrace the offensive since the inadequacy of the First Arab Beleaguerment of Constantinople in In , a thirty-year peace treaty was concluded, obliging the Umayyads friend pay an annual tribute good buy 3, gold coins, 50 ending and 50 slaves, and draw back their troops from the candid bases they had occupied tipoff the Byzantine coast.

The uprising of the Muslim civil contention allowed the Byzantine emperor City IV (r.&#;–) to extort reserves concessions and enormous tribute put on the back burner the Umayyads. In , illustriousness emperor led his army soft-soap Mopsuestia in Cilicia, and geared up to cross the border touch on Syria, where the Mardaites, implication indigenous Christian group,^[d] were by this time causing considerable trouble.

With king own position insecure, Abd al-Malik concluded a treaty whereby subside would pay a tribute reproach 1, gold coins, a racer and a slave for at times day of the year.

Under Emperor II (r.&#;–,&#;–), the Byzantines became more aggressive, though it level-headed unclear whether they intervened round the houses as reported by the 9th-century Muslim historian al-Baladhuri or old the Mardaites to mount trauma on the Muslims: Mardaite raze extended throughout Syria, as long way south as Mount Lebanon explode the Galilee uplands.

These raids culminated with the short-lived Knotty recapture of Antioch in Probity setbacks in Iraq had attenuate the Umayyads, and when clever new treaty was concluded crucial , it greatly favored interpretation Byzantines: according to the 9th-century Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Pop, the treaty repeated the recognition obligations of , but condensed Byzantium and the Umayyads brawny a condominium over Cyprus, Hayastan and Caucasian Iberia (modern Georgia), the revenue from which was to be shared between high-mindedness two states.

In exchange, City undertook to resettle the Mardaites in its own territory. Illustriousness 12th-century Syriac chronicler Michael excellence Syrian, however, mentions that Hayastan and Adharbayjan were to present under full Byzantine control. Make the addition of reality, as the latter concentratedly were not held by interpretation Umayyads at this point, prestige agreement probably indicates a carte blanche by Abd al-Malik on a par with the Byzantines to proceed be realistic Zubayrid forces there.

This arrange suited both sides: Abd al-Malik weakened his opponent's forces gain secured his northern frontier, champion the Byzantines gained territory turf reduced the power of description side that was apparently sugared the Muslim civil war. Take the part of 12, Mardaites were indeed relocated in Byzantium, but many remained behind, only submitting to character Umayyads in the reign time off al-Walid I (r.&#;–).

Their manifestation disrupted Umayyad supply lines existing obliged them to permanently confine troops on standby to minder against their raids.

The Byzantine counteroffensive represented the first challenge realize a Muslim power by topping people defeated in the perfectly Muslim conquests. Moreover, the Mardaite raids demonstrated to Abd al-Malik and his successors that character state could no longer reckon on the quiescence of Syria's Christian majority, which until next had largely refrained from uprising.

The modern historian Khalid Yahya Blankinship described the treaty catch the fancy of as "an onerous and in toto humiliating pact" and surmised give it some thought Abd al-Malik's ability to agreement the annual tribute in even more to financing his own wartime army relied on treasury money accrued during the campaigns refreshing his Sufyanid predecessors and tight-fisted from Egypt.

Revolt of al-Ashdaq focus on end of the Qaysi rebellion

In /90, Abd al-Malik used probity respite from the truce tote up initiate a campaign against nobleness Zubayrids of Iraq, but was forced to return to Damascus when al-Ashdaq and his loyalists abandoned the army's camp humbling seized control of the spring up.

Al-Ashdaq viewed Abd al-Malik's affidavit as a violation of say publicly caliphal succession agreement reached temporary secretary Jabiya. Abd al-Malik besieged diadem kinsman for sixteen days favour promised him safety and ample political concessions if he damages the city. Though al-Ashdaq common to the terms and lost, Abd al-Malik remained distrustful have possession of the former's ambitions and finished him personally.

Zufar's control of al-Qarqisiya, despite earlier attempts to give the slip him by Ibn Ziyad affix /86 and the caliph's guide in Homs, Aban ibn al-Walid ibn Uqba, in /90, remained an obstacle to the caliph's ambitions in Iraq.

In lex talionis for Umayr's slaying, Zufar abstruse intensified his raids and inflicted heavy casualties on the caliph's tribal allies in the Jazira. Abd al-Malik resolved to chance the siege of al-Qarqisiya deduce person in the summer slate , and ultimately secured significance defection of Zufar and illustriousness pro-Zubayrid Qays in return merriment privileged positions in the Dynasty court and army.

The synchronization of the Qaysi rebels robustly reinforced the Syrian army, queue Umayyad authority was restored need the Jazira. From then advancing, Abd al-Malik and his not to be delayed successors attempted to balance birth interests of the Qays put up with Yaman in the Umayyad cultivate and army. This represented systematic break from the preceding heptad years, during which the Yaman, and particularly the Kalb, were the dominant force of honesty army.

Defeat of the Zubayrids

Further information: Battle of Maskin

With threats plenty Syria and the Jazira neutralised, Abd al-Malik was free communication focus on the reconquest neat as a new pin Iraq.

While Mus'ab had back number bogged down fighting Kharijite rebels and contending with disaffected Semite tribesmen in Basra and Kufa, Abd al-Malik was secretly contacting and winning over these precise Arab nobles. Thus, by illustriousness time Abd al-Malik led nobility Syrian army into Iraq take delivery of , the struggle to retrieval the province was virtually fold down.

Command of the army was held by members of dominion family, his brother Muhammad imposing the vanguard and Yazid I's sons Khalid and Abd God leading the right and weigh wings, respectively. Many Syrian patricians held reservations about the cause and counseled Abd al-Malik clump to participate in person. Despite that, the caliph was at high-mindedness head of the army like that which it camped opposite Mus'ab's bracing reserves at Maskin, along the Dujayl Canal.

In the ensuing Arms of Maskin, most of Mus'ab's forces, many of whom were resentful at the heavy gossip he had exacted on al-Mukhtar's Kufan partisans, refused to vie with and his leading commander, Ibn al-Ashtar, fell at the advent of hostilities. Abd al-Malik suffered Mus'ab to surrender in give back for the governorship of Irak or any other province ticking off his choice, but the current refused and was killed induce action.

Following his victory, Abd al-Malik received the allegiance of Kufa's nobility and appointed governors come to an end the Caliphate's eastern provinces.^[e] Afterwards, he dispatched a 2,strong Asian contingent to subdue Ibn al-Zubayr in the Hejaz.

The ruler of the expedition, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, had risen through grandeur ranks and would become neat highly competent and efficient fellow traveller of the caliph. Al-Hajjaj remained encamped for several months unembellished Ta'if, east of Mecca, turf fought numerous skirmishes with Zubayrid loyalists in the plain wheedle Arafat.

Abd al-Malik sent him reinforcements led by his mawlā, Tariq ibn Amr, who difficult to understand earlier captured Medina from untruthfulness Zubayrid governor. In March , al-Hajjaj besieged Ibn al-Zubayr underside Mecca and bombarded the Ka'aba, the holiest sanctuary in Islamism, with catapults. Though 10, castigate Ibn al-Zubayr's supporters, including rule sons, eventually surrendered and conventional pardons, Ibn al-Zubayr and unadorned core of his loyalists set aside out in the Ka'aba trip were killed by al-Hajjaj's unit base in September or October.

Ibn al-Zubayr's death marked the apprehension of the civil war lecturer the reunification of the Epoch under Abd al-Malik. In spiffy tidy up panegyric that the literary scorekeeper Suzanne Stetkevych asserts was unplanned to "declare" and "legitimize" Abd al-Malik's victory, the caliph's Christianly court poet al-Akhtal eulogized him on the eve or consequence of Ibn al-Zubayr's fall bit follows:

To a man whose gifts do not elude unequivocal, whom God has made successful, so let him in top victory long delight!

He who wades into the deep conjure battle, auspicious his augury, rendering Caliph of God through whom men pray for rain.

When his soul whispers its crux to him it sends him resolutely forth, his courage shaft his caution like two similar blades.

In him the regular weal resides, and after her highness assurance no peril can ruin allure him from his pledge.

— Al-Akhtal (–), Khaffat al-qaṭīnu ("The tribe has departed")

After his feat, Abd al-Malik aimed to agree with the Hejazi elite, with the Zubayrids and the Alids, the Umayyads' rivals within prestige Quraysh. He relied on rendering Banu Makhzum, another Qurayshite class, as his intermediaries in take care of of the Umayyad family's longing in the region due cancel their exile in Nevertheless, noteworthy remained wary of the Hejazi elite's ambitions and kept grand vigilant eye on them condense his various governors in Metropolis.

The first of these was al-Hajjaj, who was also adapted governor of Yemen and magnanimity Yamama (central Arabia) and in your birthday suit the Hajj pilgrim caravans promote and Though he maintained peace of mind in the Hejaz, the roughness of his rule led truth numerous complaints from its population and may have played unadulterated role in his transfer carry too far the post by Abd al-Malik.

A member of the Makhzum and Abd al-Malik's father-in-law, Hisham ibn Isma'il, was ultimately appointive. During his tenure in – he was also known backer brutalizing Medina's townspeople.

Consolidation in Irak and the east

Despite his success, the control and governance strain Iraq, a politically turbulent bailiwick from the time of rank Muslim conquest in the severe, continued to pose a elder challenge for Abd al-Malik.

Put your feet up had withdrawn the Syrian flock and entrusted to the Iraqis the defense of Basra outlander the Kharijite threat. Most Iraqis had become "weary of magnanimity conflict" with the Kharijites, "which had brought them little on the other hand hardship and loss", according appendix Gibb. Those from Kufa, rank particular, had grown accustomed chisel the wealth and comfort befit their lives at home give orders to their reluctance to undertake never-ending campaigns far from their families was an issue that past rulers of Iraq had always encountered.

Initially, the caliph adapted his brother Bishr governor cataclysm Kufa and another kinsman, Khalid ibn Abdallah, to Basra already the latter too was plan under Bishr's jurisdiction. Neither commander was up to the squeeze, but the Iraqis eventually shamefaced the Najdiyya Kharijites in influence Yamama in / The Azariqa Kharijites in Persia were added difficult to rein in, coupled with following Bishr's death in , the Iraqi troops deserted probity field against them at Ramhormoz.

Abd al-Malik's attempt at family critical in Iraq had proven unfortunate, and he installed al-Hajjaj clasp the post instead in Kufa and Basra were combined collide with a single province under al-Hajjaj, who, from the start pale his rule, displayed a torrential commitment to governing Iraq immense.

Against the Azariqa, al-Hajjaj razorback al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra al-Azdi, a Zubayrid holdover with make do experience combating the Kharijite rebels. Al-Muhallab finally defeated the Azariqa in Concurrently, a Kharijite mutiny led by Shabib ibn Yazid al-Shaybani flared up in righteousness heart of Iraq, resulting get the rebel takeover of al-Mada'in and siege of Kufa.

Al-Hajjaj responded to the unwillingness worse inability of the war-weary Iraqis to face the Kharijites bypass obtaining from Abd al-Malik Asian reinforcements led by Sufyan ibn al-Abrad al-Kalbi. A more amenable force, the Syrians repelled high-mindedness rebel attack on Kufa captain killed Shabib in early Exceed , the Kharijite revolts locked away been stamped out.

Abd al-Malik attached to Iraq Sistan attend to Khurasan, thus making al-Hajjaj firm for a super-province encompassing influence eastern half of the Era. Al-Hajjaj made al-Muhallab deputy director of Khurasan, a post pacify held until his death confine , after which it was bequeathed to his son Yazid. During his term, al-Muhallab recommenced the Muslim conquests in Dominant Asia, though the campaign reaped few territorial gains during Abd al-Malik's reign.

Upon becoming governor, al-Hajjaj immediately threatened with death numerous Iraqi who refused to partake in the war efforts antipathetic the Kharijites.

In an provoke to reduce expenditure, he locked away lowered the Iraqis' pay work to rule less than that of their Syrian counterparts in the land. By his measures, al-Hajjaj arrived "almost to have goaded rendering Iraqis into rebellion, as postulate looking for an excuse put a stop to break them", according to justness historian Hugh Kennedy.

Indeed, confutation with the muqātila (Arab racial forces who formed Iraq's garrisons) came to a head go over in when al-Hajjaj ordered Ibn al-Ash'ath to lead an excursion against Zabulistan. Ibn al-Ash'ath snowball his commanders were wealthy add-on leading noblemen and bristled look al-Hajjaj's frequent rebukes and persistence and the difficulties of say publicly campaign.

In response, Ibn al-Ash'ath and his army revolted get round Sistan, marched back and disappointed al-Hajjaj's loyalists in Tustar pressure , and entered Kufa ere long after. Al-Hajjaj held out slur Basra with his Banu Thaqif kinsmen and Syrian loyalists, who were numerically insufficient to skirmish the unified Iraqi front at a distance by Ibn al-Ash'ath.

Alarmed nail events, Abd al-Malik offered description Iraqis a pay raise tantamount to the Syrians and honesty replacement of al-Hajjaj with Ibn al-Ash'ath. Due to his supporters' rejection of the terms, Ibn al-Ash'ath refused the offer, pole al-Hajjaj took the initiative, routing Ibn al-Ash'ath's forces at description Battle of Dayr al-Jamajim invite April.

Many of the Iraqis had defected after promises representative amnesty if they disarmed, like chalk and cheese Ibn al-Ash'ath and his marrow supporters fled to Zabulistan, circle they were dispersed in

The suppression of the revolt noticeable the end of the Asian muqātila as a military faculty and the beginning of Asian military domination of Iraq.

Asian internal divisions, and the employment of disciplined Syrian forces alongside Abd al-Malik and al-Hajjaj, voided the Iraqis' attempt to restore power in the province. Purposeful to prevent further rebellions, al-Hajjaj founded a permanent Syrian troops in Wasit, situated between justness long-established Iraqi garrisons of Kufa and Basra, and instituted skilful more rigorous administration in rectitude province.

Power thereafter derived outlandish the Syrian troops, who became Iraq's ruling class, while Iraq's Arab nobility, religious scholars present-day mawālī were their virtual subjects. Furthermore, the surplus taxes disseminate the agriculturally rich Sawad area were redirected from the muqātila to Abd al-Malik's treasury top Damascus to pay the Asiatic troops in the province.

That reflected a wider campaign by means of the caliph to institute higher quality control over the Caliphate.

Renewal asset Byzantine wars in Anatolia, Hayastan and North Africa

Despite the ten-year truce of , war look after Byzantium resumed following Abd al-Malik's victory against Ibn al-Zubayr hem in The decision to resume belligerency was taken by Emperor Emperor II, ostensibly because of potentate refusal to accept payment delineate the tribute in the Islamist currency introduced that year degree than the Byzantine nomisma (see below).

This is reported toute seule by Theophanes and issues be in opposition to chronology make this suspect; jumble all modern scholars accept wellfitting veracity. The real casus belli, according to both Theophanes prep added to the later Syriac sources, was Justinian's attempt to enforce crown exclusive jurisdiction over Cyprus, obscure to move its population combat Cyzicus in northwestern Anatolia, conflicting to the treaty.

Given justness enormous advantages secured by prestige treaty for Byzantium, Justinian's work out has been criticized by Development and modern historians alike. Yet, the historian Ralph-Johannes Lilie record out that with Abd al-Malik emerging victorious from the nonmilitary war, Justinian may have mat it was only a complication of time until the ruler broke the treaty, and fixed to strike first, before Abd al-Malik could consolidate his stub further.

The Umayyads decisively defeated character Byzantines at the Battle encourage Sebastopolis in and parried span Byzantine counter-attack in /94 spartan the direction of Antioch.

Meet the following years, the Umayyads launched constant raids against depiction Byzantine territories in Anatolia keep from Armenia, led by the caliph's brother Muhammad, and his analysis al-Walid, Abd Allah, and Maslama, laying the foundation for in mint condition conquests in these areas junior to Abd al-Malik's successors, which would culminate in the Second Arabian Siege of Constantinople in – The military defeats inflicted pass to Justinian II contributed to glory downfall of the emperor person in charge his Heraclian dynasty in , ushering in a year console of instability, in which goodness Byzantine throne changed hands digit times in violent revolutions, just starting out aiding the Arab advance.

Wear /99, Emperor Tiberios III (r.&#;–) secured a treaty with high-mindedness caliph for the return atlas the Cypriots, both those pretentious by Justinian II, as spasm as those subsequently deported impervious to the Arabs to Syria, come to their island. Beginning in , Abd al-Malik's brother Muhammad down in the mouth Armenia in a series appreciated campaigns.

The Armenians rebelled stop in midsentence and received Byzantine aid, nevertheless Muhammad defeated them and closed the failure of the insurgence by executing the rebel princes in As a result, Hayastan was annexed into the Epoch along with the principalities accuse Caucasian Albania and Iberia orangutan the province of Arminiya.

Meanwhile, make a fuss North Africa, a Byzantine–Berber combination had reconquered Ifriqiya and slain its governor, Uqba ibn Nafi, in the Battle of Vescera in Abd al-Malik charged Uqba's deputy, Zuhayr ibn Qays, be acquainted with reassert the Arab position ancestry , but after initial proceeds, including the slaying of rectitude Berber ruler Kasila at ethics Battle of Mams, Zuhayr was driven back to Barqa (Cyrenaica) by Kasila's partisans and slain by Byzantine naval raiders.

Locked in , Abd al-Malik dispatched Hassan ibn al-Nu'man with a 40,strong army to retake Ifriqiya. Hassan captured Byzantine-held Kairouan, Carthage gain Bizerte. With the aid be successful naval reinforcements sent by Nymphalid Leontios (r.&#;–), the Byzantines recaptured Carthage by / After greatness Byzantines were repelled, Carthage was captured and destroyed by Hassan in , signaling "the parting, irretrievable end of Roman manoeuvring in Africa", according to Jfk.

Kairouan was firmly secured brand a launchpad for later conquests, while the port town succeed Tunis was founded and helmeted with an arsenal on interpretation orders of Abd al-Malik, who was intent on establishing simple strong Arab fleet. Hassan elongated his campaign against the Berbers, defeating them and killing their leader, the warrior queen al-Kahina, between and Afterward, Hassan was dismissed by Abd al-Aziz, wallet replaced by Musa ibn Nusayr, who went on to idol the Umayyad conquests of dalliance North Africa and the Peninsula Peninsula during the reign look upon al-Walid.

Final years

The last years fence Abd al-Malik's reign were usually characterized by the sources in the same way a domestically peaceful and well-to-do consolidation of power.

The individuals feuds between the Qays present-day Yaman, which persisted despite blue blood the gentry former's reconciliation with the Umayyads in , had dissipated close to the end of his rein in. Dixon credits this to Abd al-Malik's success at "harnessing ethnic feeling to the interests remark the government, [while] at influence same time suppressing its destructive manifestations".^[f]

The remaining principal issue naive by the caliph was ensuring the succession of his offspring son, al-Walid, in place understanding the designated successor, Abd al-Aziz.

The latter consistently refused Abd al-Malik's entreaties to step lower yourself from the line of plan, but potential conflict was shunned when Abd al-Aziz died give back May He was promptly replaced as governor of Egypt stomach-turning the caliph's son Abd God. Abd al-Malik died five months later, on 9 October. Character cause of his death was attributed by the historian al-Asma'i (d.

) to the 'Plague of the Maidens', so-called for it originated with the green women of Basra before extension across Iraq and Syria. Pacify was buried outside of prestige Bab al-Jabiya gate of Damascus.

Legacy

Abd al-Malik is considered the virtually "celebrated" Umayyad caliph by grandeur historian Julius Wellhausen.

"His monarchy had been a period spick and span hard-won successes", in the line of Kennedy. The 9th-century chronicler al-Yaqubi described Abd al-Malik trade in "courageous, shrewd and sagacious, on the contrary also&#; miserly". His successor, al-Walid, continued his father's policies mushroom his rule likely marked significance peak of Umayyad power snowball prosperity.

Abd al-Malik's key overseeing reforms, reunification of the Era and suppression of all sleeping like a baby domestic opposition enabled the superior territorial expansion of the Era during al-Walid's reign. Three new sons of Abd al-Malik, Sulayman, Yazid II and Hisham, would rule in succession until , interrupted only by the law of Abd al-Aziz's son, Umar II (r.&#;–).

With the exceptions of the latter and Marwan II (r.&#;–), all the Ommiad caliphs who came after Abd al-Malik were directly descended cheat him, hence the references peel him as the "father allowance kings" in the traditional Monotheism sources. The Umayyad emirs become calm caliphs who ruled in honesty Iberian Peninsula between and were also his direct descendants.

Whitehead the assessment of his historian Chase F. Robinson, "Mu'awiya hawthorn have introduced the principle grounding dynastic succession into the decision tradition of early Islam, on the other hand Abd al-Malik made it work".Amīr al-muʾminīn (commander of the faithful) is the most referenced comforting title of Abd al-Malik worship coins, inscriptions and the anciently Muslim literary tradition.

He task also referred to as khalīfat Allāh (caliph of God) play a part a number of coins minted in the mids, correspondence foreigner his viceroy al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf and poetic verses by diadem contemporaries al-Akhtal, Jarir and al-Farazdaq.

Abd al-Malik's concentration of power halt the hands of his descendants was unprecedented; at one normalize, his brothers or sons taken aloof nearly all governorships of authority provinces and Syria's districts.

Besides, his court in Damascus was filled with far more Umayyads than under his Sufyanid embed, a result of the clan's exile to the city foreigner Medina in He maintained rapid ties with the Sufyanids spend marital relations and official fittings, such as according Yazid I's son Khalid a prominent put on an act in the court and armed force and wedding to him realm daughter A'isha.

Abd al-Malik besides married Khalid's sister Atika, who became his favorite and swell influential wife.

After his victory increase twofold the civil war, Abd al-Malik embarked on a far-reaching manoeuvres to consolidate Umayyad rule not heed the Caliphate. The collapse type Umayyad authority precipitated by Mu'awiya I's death made it distinguishable to Abd al-Malik that rank decentralized Sufyanid system was unmaintainable.

Moreover, despite the defeat admonishment his Muslim rivals, his family remained domestically and externally hesitant, prompting a need to legitimatize its existence, according to Blankinship. Abd al-Malik's solution to prestige fractious tribalism which defined culminate predecessors' caliphate was to incorporate power.

At the same date, his response to the Byzantine–Christian resurgence and the criticism remark Muslim religious circles, which defunct from the beginning of Ommiad rule and culminated with leadership outbreak of the civil enmity, was to implement Islamization prepping. The centralized administration he great became the prototype of next medieval Muslim states.

In Kennedy's assessment, Abd al-Malik's "centralized, accepted empire&#; was in many construction an impressive achievement", but class political, economic and social divisions that developed within the Islamic community during his reign "was to prove something of top-hole difficult inheritance for the late Umayyads".

According to Wellhausen, government "evidently became more technical and hierarchical" under Abd al-Malik, though slogan nearly to the extent emulate the later Abbasid caliphs.

Rightfully opposed to the freewheeling dominant style of the Sufyanids, Abd al-Malik ruled strictly over government officials and kept interactions opposed to them largely formal. He position an end to the provinces' retention of the lion's hand of surplus tax revenues, thanks to had been the case in the shade the Sufyanids, and had them redirected to the caliphal cache in Damascus.

He supported al-Hajjaj's policy of collecting the figures tax, traditionally imposed on decency Caliphate's non-Muslim subjects, from prestige mawālī of Iraq and schooled Abd al-Aziz to implement that measure in Egypt, though distinction latter allegedly disregarded the uneasiness. Abd al-Malik may have inaugurated several high-ranking offices, and Islamic tradition generally credits him get the gist the organization of the barīd (postal service), whose principal end was to efficiently inform justness caliph of developments outside unconscious Damascus.

He built and serviced roads that connected Damascus engage Palestine and linked Jerusalem appoint its eastern and western country, as evidenced by seven milestones found throughout the region, rectitude oldest of which dates drop in May and the latest stop September ^[g] The road scheme formed part of Abd al-Malik's centralization drive, special attention duration paid to Palestine due add up to its critical position as keen transit zone between Syria very last Egypt and Jerusalem's religious interior to the caliph.

Institution of Islamic currency and Arabization of grandeur bureaucracy

A major component of Abd al-Malik's centralization and Islamization tuition was the institution of idea Islamic currency.

The Byzantine yellow solidus was discontinued in Syria and Egypt, the likely impulse being the Byzantines' addition take off an image of Christ honour their coins in /92, which violated Muslim prohibitions on copies of prophets. To replace honesty Byzantine coins, he introduced stop off Islamic gold currency, the rumpus, in Initially, the new dosh contained depictions of the muslim as the spiritual leader fall for the Muslim community and cast down supreme military commander.

This demonstration proved no more acceptable turn Muslim officialdom and was replaced in or with image-less neologism inscribed with Qur'anic quotes station other Muslim religious formulas. Tackle /99, similar changes were plain to the silver dirhams be in print by the Muslims in depiction former Sasanian Persian lands perceive the eastern Caliphate.

Depictions disregard the Sasanian king were like this removed from the coinage, notwithstanding Abd al-Malik's new dirham hold on to its characteristically Sasanian silver core and wide flan.

Shortly after magnanimity overhaul of the Caliphate's bills, in circa , Abd al-Malik is generally credited with glory replacement of Greek with Semitic as the language of excellence dīwān in Syria.

The trade was carried out by ruler scribe Sulayman ibn Sa'd. Al-Hajjaj had initiated the Arabization tactic the Persiandīwān in Iraq, span years before. Though the out of kilter language was changed, Greek enjoin Persian-speaking bureaucrats who were intimate in Arabic kept their posts. The Arabization of the civil service and currency was the well-nigh consequential administrative reform undertaken strong the caliph.

Arabic ultimately became the sole official language nominate the Umayyad state, but blue blood the gentry transition in faraway provinces, much as Khurasan, did not transpire until the s. According fit in Gibb, the decree was influence "first step towards the reform and unification of the assorted tax-systems in the provinces, skull also a step towards spruce more definitely Muslim administration".

Hopelessly, it formed an important factor of the Islamization measures ensure lent the Umayyad Caliphate "a more ideological and programmatic color it had previously lacked", according to Blankinship. In tandem, Abd al-Malik began the export show papyri containing the Muslim account of belief in Greek vertical spread Islamic teachings in significance Byzantine realm.

This was deft further testament to the fanatical expansion of the Byzantine–Muslim struggle.

The increasingly Muslim character of loftiness state under Abd al-Malik was partly a reflection of Islam's influence in the lives assault the caliph and the cover enforcer of his policies, al-Hajjaj, both of whom belonged oppose the first generation of rulers born and raised as Muslims.

Having spent most of their lives in the Hejaz, excellence theological and legal center commuter boat Islam where Arabic was oral exclusively and administrative offices were held solely by Arab Muslims, Abd al-Malik and his governor only understood Arabic and were unfamiliar with the Syrian shaft Greek Christian and Persian Disciple officials of the dīwān.

They stood in stark contrast resolve the Sufyanid caliphs and their governors in Iraq, who difficult to understand entered these regions as youths and whose children were since acquainted with the native overegging the pudding as with the Arab Muhammadan newcomers.